top of page
Writer's pictureDaniela Radoman

Creatine Supplementation in Women

One of the most popular, most studied, and most effective supplements on the market is creatine. But what exactly is creatine? Let’s look into what it is, what it does, how it affects women, and some other questions surrounding this supplement.


What is Creatine?

Creatine powder

Creatine is a compound that’s found naturally in the body and is made primarily in the liver and kidneys, but also in the pancreas. It can also be found in red meats and seafood. About 95% of the creatine in the body is stored in the muscle and it plays an important role in energy production via helping to catalyse adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from creatine and phosphocreatine (PCr). This pathway is actually your body’s main source of energy during a short, intense bout of exercise - like during a 100m sprint! Taking a creatine supplement can increase your body’s stores by 10-40%1. It’s been shown to increase not only energy, but also strength, muscle mass, recovery, as well as having plenty of other benefits that we’ll look at in this post. 



Why Should Women Supplement with Creatine?

Not only are there numerous metabolic, hormonal, and neurological benefits to creatine supplementation for women, there are also other factors to consider why taking a supplement is a good idea:2

  • Women tend to have 70-80% lower endogenous creatine stores than men

  • Women tend to consume less creatine in their diets

  • The menstrual cycle may have an effect on the production and storage of creatine due to hormonal fluctuations.



What Does it Do?

Creatine supplementation has been found to increase exercise performance, as well as have neurological, cardiovascular, mood, pregnancy, and other health benefits. 


Some performance benefits include3:

  • Increased muscle mass and strength adaptations during training

  • Increased work performed during sets of maximal effort muscle contractions

  • Increased single and repetitive sprint performance

  • Enhanced glycogen synthesis

  • Increased anaerobic threshold

  • Possible enhancement of aerobic capacity

  • Enhanced recovery

  • Greater training tolerance


Strength, Power & Muscle Hypertrophy

So wait, how does it actually increase strength, muscle mass and performance? Well, as mentioned earlier, creatine is one of the body’s main sources of energy, especially in the first 10 or so seconds of activity. Supplementing with creatine means the muscles will have greater availability to this energy source, which can increase your work capacity and training adaptations. These enhancements allow you to do more work during a series of sets, leading to greater gains in strength, muscle mass, and performance due to an improvement in training quality.4 In other words: more energy = better workout = better results. Although most creatine studies (and exercise studies for that matter) are done on men, both short-term and long-term creatine use has been found to improve strength and power in women as well.5,6,7,8,9 Generally, performance of high intensity and/or repetitive exercise increased by

Muscle strength & power

10-20%!1 


Aerobic & Anaerobic Capacity

Next on the list is anaerobic and aerobic capacity, which are simply other energy systems your body primarily uses after the initial 10 seconds. It’s thought that creatine is able to prevent fatigue during anaerobic work thanks to the increase in the body’s stores of PCr, which increases energy production and helps maintain pH levels. For instance, anaerobic working capacity was found to increase in women after supplementation in various studies.10,11,12 As for aerobic work, creatine supplementation has been shown to lower oxygen consumption (VO2) and heart rate at lower workloads, which means the work is less taxing on the cardiovascular system.13



Recovery

Not only has creatine been shown to be helpful during workouts, it’s also been shown to help afterwards too during the recovery period. It can help speed up recovery between bouts of intense exercise by lessening muscle damage and helping to recuperate force production potential.14 It has also been shown to decrease inflammation post-exercise, increase glycogen stores, and help people tolerate higher volumes of training - all promoting recovery.15,16 There’s even some evidence pointing towards creatine supplementation can help people with clinical conditions recover after injury by helping reduce muscle atrophy after immobilisation, as well as by having the recovery benefits mentioned above after rehab exercises.17



Protective Effects 

Creatine can also have other training benefits as well. An important one would be that it’s been found to help reduce the likelihood of injury. Believe it or not, taking this supplement has shown to help reduce muscle cramping, muscle strains, non-contact injuries, total injuries, heat illness/dehydration, and total missed practices compared to people who don’t take creatine.18,19 It can even help people tolerate exercise in humid and hot environments better too since creatine can help keep you hydrated for longer, and so lessens your chances of heat related illness and dehydration.20,21 An area that is rightfully getting more attention is head injuries in sport and activities. If you’re someone who plays a contact sport or does any sort of activity that may result in a fall or contact, taking a creatine supplement may be a good idea. It’s been shown to limit the damage from concussions, traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injuries due to its neuroprotective and pro-recovery effects.22,23



Use During Pregnancy

Pregnancy is a time when many expectant mothers take care of their health for the sake of their baby. Many watch what foods they consume, many quit certain habits, and many take extra vitamins and minerals to help them and their baby during this stage. There’s some evidence showing that supplementing with creatine can also be helpful during pregnancy. It’s been shown that there are benefits to fetal growth, development and health, and other papers also suggest that low creatine stores in the mother are linked to lower birth rates and preterm birth.24,25,26 Some animal studies show that creatine supplementation enhances neuronal cell uptake by the fetus which may reduce brain injury or other complications experienced intra- or post-partum.9,27 As with anything, consult your physician before adding any new supplement into your routine.



Creatine Use Among Postmenopausal Women

With age comes physiological changes - anything from hormonal shifts to psychosocial changes to differences in body composition. In women, lowered estrogen levels are responsible in large part for lowered muscle and bone mass and strength, as well as increased inflammation and oxidative stress.28,29 Guess as to what supplement can help with all of the above? You guessed it, creatine! Most studies involving creatine use among postmenopausal women combined its use with resistance training. Collectively, these studies suggest that women may experience an increase in muscle mass and function when consuming the recommended dosages for at least seven consecutive days.30,31,32,33 The effects on bone physiology aren’t as obvious, but there is some evidence pointing towards reducing bone density loss with creatine supplementation.33 More research needs to be done, but there’s a growing amount of data implying that creatine has many benefits during this stage!



Depression & Mood

There has been shown to be a relationship between brain creatine metabolism and depression. Women tend to have lower creatine levels in the brain, particularly in the frontal lobe, which is responsible for mood, emotion, cognition, and memory.34 So, the question is, would creatine help with mood and depression? Plenty of studies have looked at women of various ages that deal with depression and have found that supplementing with creatine alongside antidepressant medication has helped reduce symptoms and even saw improvements in response time to medication compared to using medication alone.35,36,27,38 Believe it or not, creatine consumption has even been found to be inversely correlated to the incidence of depression, with a 31% greater incidence rate of depression in adults who are in the bottom 25% of creatine intake.39 In conclusion, increasing creatine intake - whether through eating more animal protein or through supplements - has strong evidence to support mood and depression, particularly in women.



Cognition & Sleep

We talked a lot about creatine stores in the muscle for physical activity, but another body part that uses creatine is the brain. Your brain relies on creatine as as an energy source, yet the levels of creatine in the brain can greatly vary for women depending on their age, lifestyle choices, diet, stress, and other factors.40 It has been consistently shown that creatine supplementation results in improvements in cognitive function, working memory, attention, and decreases mental fatigue.41 Those even with cognitive impairments have been shown to see improvements as well.42 

sleepy cat

Let’s talk about sleep now, one of the most important things we do everyday. Not only are women more susceptible to sleep deprivation (this is due to pregnancy, postpartum demands, and menopausal sleep disturbances), women also tend to experience greater detrimental effects of sleep deprivation compared to men - with lower levels of alertness and increased sleepiness-related risks.43 Sleep deprivation is also linked to lower cognition, as well as lower sleep quality in women during the follicular phase when estrogen levels dip, which also appears to be when creatine levels in the body also dip.44 Great news, though, is that creatine supplementation has been shown to increase mental capacity during sleep deprivation, which can help to offset some of the negative consequences.45 Of course, it’s still best to try to improve your sleep and get those zzz’s in, but at least this can help. All in all, the research is pretty promising. It seems beneficial to increase creatine intake throughout the different phases of the menstrual cycle, and its effects might be the most helpful during times of high stress and sleep deprivation. 



Aging

Apart from the above, there are plenty of other health markers that are improved with creatine supplementation.

  • Helps lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels46

  • Reduces fat accumulation in the liver47

  • Reduces homocysteine levels48

  • Acts as an antioxidant49

  • Improved glycemic control and glucose disposal in type II diabetics50

  • Improved functionality in knee osteoarthritis51

  • Slows tumour growth in certain types of cancers52,53,54

  • Fibromyalgia55

  • May help protect the heart during an ischemic event22

  • Slowed down progression of brain atrophy in those with Huntington’s Disease56 



Dosage & Timing Recommendations

When starting to take a creatine supplement, some may opt for a loading phase, while others may opt to stick to the regular recommended daily intake of 3-5g. Either way works. The loading phase consists of taking 5g of creatine, 4-5 times per day, for 5-7 days.57 This protocol saturates your body’s creatine levels faster, which may be beneficial if you're an athlete. Once creatine stores are fully saturated, 3-5g daily is enough to keep those stores maintained. If you skip the loading phase completely, you can just start at and stick to 3-5g a day. This method will just take longer to saturate the stores (~3-4 weeks compared to 5 days).57 One thing’s for sure though, make sure to take it every day - even on your rest days!


While creatine is highly bioavailable, it can be enhanced by consuming carbs and/or protein along with it.58,59 It’s also been shown that there’s a slight edge in taking it post-workout versus pre-workout when it comes to body composition and strength improvements.60 Personally, I find it easiest to mix it with my post-workout protein shake. Ultimately, being consistent with taking creatine is more important than the timing of taking it, so take it at a time when it’s most convenient for you and allows you to be the most consistent.



Non-Responders

What if you don’t see any effects? You may be a non-responder. A non-responder is someone who doesn’t experience any of the changes mentioned above when taking a creatine supplement. Approximately 20-30% of people are non-responders to creatine and the only way to find out if you are one is to take creatine for a while.61


Responders are usually those with lower starting levels, greater type II fibres, and a higher potential to improve performance in response to creatine supplementation.62,63 Those who are non-responders tend to be the opposite. Non-responders usually already have higher starting levels of creatine in their bodies, so supplementing with extra while your body’s stores are already full won’t give you much benefit. 



Which Type is Best?

The go-to type of creatine is the monohydrate form. It’s the most thoroughly researched form of creatine, and it also tends to be the cheapest. Other forms of creatine can be more expensive and they don’t appear to have any added benefits. Regardless, here’s a bit of a breakdown on the various forms of creatine:

  • Creatine Monohydrate: can be usually found in two forms (both of which are fine)

  • Creatine Anhydrous: a creatine monohydrate with the water molecule removed, so it’s 100% creatine by weight - though that doesn’t make it any more effective.

  • Micronized Creatine Monohydrate: a more water-soluble form

  • Creatine Hydrochloride: This is the other form of creatine commonly found. It’s creatine that’s bound to a hydrochloric acid, which is believed to be more soluble, and smaller doses are needed. There isn’t as much research done on this form, and so far, there doesn’t seem to be any extra benefits to it.


Common Questions & Misconceptions

Let’s take a look at some of the most commonly asked questions and misconceptions surrounding creatine.


Is creatine safe?

Yes! Creatine is one of the most researched supplements, with over 1000 studies conducted across various people and with various dosages.1,64,65 Dosages have ranged from 0.3 to 0.8g/kg of body weight for even up to 5 years and have consistently shown no adverse health effects, and rather has shown usually plenty of performance and health benefits! 

Many studies have looked at creatine use in infants, toddlers, adolescents, young adults, and older adults, also resulting in no adverse health effects  but rather observed some health benefits. It’s important to realise that many warning labels listed on supplements advising no one under the age of 18 to take it comes more from a legal precaution rather than from a health and safety viewpoint.


Does creatine cause bloating?

Creatine may increase water retention within the body, this is usually due to water being drawn into the muscle, creating a volumizing effect within the muscle cells themselves, not in your gastro-intestinal tract where most people get that bloated feeling. This water retention usually only lasts a few days and occurs in the early stages of supplementation.66 Even so, there’s some evidence suggesting there is no change in both intra or extracellular total body water relative to muscle mass over long periods of time with creatine use.67 P.S. if you do experience a bit of a jump when you step on the scale, it’s more than likely just “water weight,” so nothing to worry over.


Is creatine an anabolic steroid?

The answer is no, creatine is not a steroid. Steroids are drugs that increase muscle protein synthesis via synthetic hormones. Creatine, on the other hand, just makes energy more easily accessible by your body which results in more muscle power and strength.


Is creatine bad for your kidneys?

This is a very common question asked about creatine use. Over 20 years of research on creatine demonstrates no adverse effects on kidney health from the recommended dosages. If you have any pre-existing health condition, it would be a good idea to talk to your physician before taking creatine, or any supplement for that matter.


Does creatine cause hair loss?

This misconception comes from a 2009 study on rugby players where creatine intake was linked to an increase in DHT levels (which is associated with hair loss).68 However, DHT levels still remained within normal levels and actual hair loss wasn’t observed. It’s also important to note that the results from this study haven’t been replicated, plus, intense exercise can also lead to increases in these androgenic hormones. The current body of evidence doesn’t point towards creatine increasing the levels of total testosterone, free testosterone, DHT, or causing hair loss.


What if creatine gives me an upset stomach?

Gastrointestinal upset is one of the few complaints people have when taking creatine. You can try to take creatine with a tall glass of water and perhaps even with a meal. Another helpful trick might be to split up your creatine intake throughout the day, e.g. morning and evening.



Final Remarks

All in all, creatine supplementation appears to have many health benefits for women across the lifespan, particularly as it relates to estrogen. Increased muscle and brain stores have been shown to improve strength, body composition, performance, recovery, cognition, mood, as well as many other health benefits. Just try to consistently take 3-5g a day and you should be all set!


It’s important to remember that creatine also isn’t a be-all end-all that will magically make

you look like a fitness model or bodybuilder (in contrast to what some fitness influencers might tell you). Creatine is best used when you also put in the work! You have to put in the effort, consistently follow a smart program using proper intensity and volume, and recover hard to reap the most benefits!

Delta Kinesiology

Great news is that you can get that here at Delta Kinesiology, where we specialise in helping women reach their health and fitness goals. We tailor each workout program using evidence-based principles and methods to help you reach your goals. Whether that be going about your day pain-free, building muscle, improving stamina, or feeling better about yourself, we are here to help.


Check out some of the services we offer below!




Readings

If you want to read more into the effects of creatine, here are 3 great reviews you can look over.




References

  1. RB;, K. (2003, February). Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations. Molecular and cellular biochemistry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701815/ 

  2. ME;, B. J. (2007). Creatine: Endogenous metabolite, dietary, and therapeutic supplement. Annual review of nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17430086/ 

  3. Kreider, R., & Jung, Y. P. (2011, May). (PDF) creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Physical Activity and Nutrition. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276254787_Creatine_supplementation_in_exercise_sport_and_medicine 

  4. Ziegenfuss , T. N., Rogers , M., Lowery, L., Mullins, N., Mendel, R., Antonio, J., & Lemon, P. (2002, May). Effect of creatine loading on anaerobic performance and skeletal muscle volume in NCAA Division I Athletes. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11985944/ 

  5. Vandenberghe, K., Goris, M., Van Hecke, P., Van Leemputte, M., Vangerven, L., & Hespel, P. (1997). Long-term creatine intake is beneficial to muscle performance during resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83(6), 2055–2063. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.83.6.2055

  6. Larson-Meyer, D. E., Hunter, G. R., Trowbridge, C. A., Turk, J. C., Ernest, J. M., Torman, S. L., & Harbin, P. A. (2000). The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Muscle Strength and Body Composition During Off-Season Training in Female Soccer Players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 14(4), 434–442. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2000/11000/The_Effect_of_Creatine_Supplementation_on_Muscle.11.aspx

  7. Brenner, M., Rankin, J. W., & Sebolt, D. (2000). The Effect of Creatine Supplementation During Resistance Training in Women. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 14(2), 207–213. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/abstract/2000/05000/the_effect_of_creatine_supplementation_during.15.aspx

  8. Kambis, K. W., & Pizzedaz, S. K. (2003). Short-term Creatine Supplementation Improves Maximum Quadriceps Contraction in Women. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.13.1.87

  9. Smith-Ryan, A. E., Cabre, H. E., Eckerson, J. M., & Candow, D. G. (2021). Creatine Supplementation in Women’s Health: A Lifespan Perspective. Nutrients, 13(3), 877. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030877

  10. Eckerson, J. M., Stout, J. R., Moore, G. A., Stone, N. J., Nishimura, K., & Tamura, K. (2004). Effect of Two and Five Days of Creatine Loading on Anaerobic Working Capacity in Women. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(1), 168. https://doi.org/10.1519/1533-4287(2004)018%3C0168:eotafd%3E2.0.co;2

  11. EARNEST, C. P., SNELL, P. G., RODRIGUEZ, R., ALMADA, A. L., & MITCHELL, T. L. (1995). The effect of creatine monohydrate ingestion on anaerobic power indices, muscular strength and body composition. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 153(2), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1995.tb09854.x

  12. Smith, J. C., Stephens, D. P., Hall, E. L., Jackson, A. W., & Earnest, C. P. (1998). Effect of oral creatine ingestion on parameters of the work rate-time relationship and time to exhaustion in high-intensity cycling. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 77(4), 360–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050345

  13. Wax, B., Kerksick, C. M., Jagim, A. R., Mayo, J. J., Lyons, B. C., & Kreider, R. B. (2021). Creatine for Exercise and Sports Performance, with Recovery Considerations for Healthy Populations. Nutrients, 13(6), 1915. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13061915

  14. Green, A. L., Hultman, E., Macdonald, I. A., Sewell, D. A., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996). Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 271(5), E821–E826. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1996.271.5.e82

  15. Cooke, M. B., Rybalka, E., Williams, A. D., Cribb, P. J., & Hayes, A. (2009). Creatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individuals. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 6(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-6-13

  16. Hespel, P., Op’t Eijnde, B., Leemputte, M. V., Ursø, B., Greenhaff, P. L., Labarque, V., Dymarkowski, S., Hecke, P. V., & Richter, E. A. (2001). Oral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humans. The Journal of Physiology, 536(2), 625–633. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0625c.xd

  17. Greenwood, M., Kreider, R. B., Melton, C., Rasmussen, C., Lancaster, S., Cantler, E., Milnor, P., & Almada, A. (2003). Creatine supplementation during college football training does not increase the incidence of cramping or injury. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 244(1-2), 83–88. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701814/

  18. Greenwood, M., Kreider, R. B., Greenwood, L., & Byars, A. (2003). Cramping and Injury Incidence in Collegiate Football Players Are Reduced by Creatine Supplementation. Journal of Athletic Training, 38(3), 216–219. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14608430/

  19. Buford, T. W., Kreider, R. B., Stout, J. R., Greenwood, M., Campbell, B., Spano, M., Ziegenfuss, T., Lopez, H., Landis, J., & Antonio, J. (2007). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 4(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-4-6

  20. Dalbo, V. J., Roberts, M. D., Stout, J. R., & Kerksick, C. M. (2008). Putting to rest the myth of creatine supplementation leading to muscle cramps and dehydration. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42(7), 567–573. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2007.042473

  21. Balestrino, M., Sarocchi, M., Adriano, E., & Spallarossa, P. (2016). Potential of creatine or phosphocreatine supplementation in cerebrovascular disease and in ischemic heart disease. Amino Acids, 48(8), 1955–1967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-016-2173-8

  22. Fernando Freire Royes, L., & Cassol, G. (2015). The Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Physical Exercise on Traumatic Brain Injury. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, 16(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557515666150722101926

  23. Ellery, S. J., Walker, D. W., & Dickinson, H. (2016). Creatine for women: a review of the relationship between creatine and the reproductive cycle and female-specific benefits of creatine therapy. Amino Acids, 48(8), 1807–1817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-016-2199-y

  24. Dickinson, H., Ellery, S., Ireland, Z., LaRosa, D., Snow, R., & Walker, D. W. (2014). Creatine supplementation during pregnancy: summary of experimental studies suggesting a treatment to improve fetal and neonatal morbidity and reduce mortality in high-risk human pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-15

  25. Dickinson, H., Davies-Tuck, M., Ellery, S., Grieger, J., Wallace, E., Snow, R., Walker, D., & Clifton, V. (2016). Maternal creatine in pregnancy: a retrospective cohort study. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 123(11), 1830–1838. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.14237

  26. Ireland, Z., Castillo-Melendez, M., Dickinson, H., Snow, R., & Walker, D. W. (2011). A maternal diet supplemented with creatine from mid-pregnancy protects the newborn spiny mouse brain from birth hypoxia. Neuroscience, 194, 372–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.05.012

  27. Collins, B. C., Laakkonen, E. K., & Lowe, D. A. (2019). Aging of the musculoskeletal system: How the loss of estrogen impacts muscle strength. Bone, 123, 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2019.03.033

  28. Messier, V., Rabasa-Lhoret, R., Barbat-Artigas, S., Elisha, B., Karelis, A. D., & Aubertin-Leheudre, M. (2011). Menopause and sarcopenia: A potential role for sex hormones. Maturitas, 68(4), 331–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.01.014

  29. Gotshalk, L. A., Kraemer, W. J., Mendonca, M. A. G., Vingren, J. L., Kenny, A. M., Spiering, B. A., Hatfield, D. L., Fragala, M. S., & Volek, J. S. (2007). Creatine supplementation improves muscular performance in older women. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 102(2), 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-007-0580-y

  30. Cañete, S., San Juan, A. F., Pérez, M., Gómez-Gallego, F., López-Mojares, L. M., Earnest, C. P., Fleck, S. J., & Lucia, A. (2006). Does Creatine Supplementation Improve Functional Capacity in Elderly Women? The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1519/r-17044.

  31. Sales, L. P., Pinto, A. J., Rodrigues, S. F., Alvarenga, J. C., Gonçalves, N., Sampaio-Barros, M. M., Benatti, F. B., Gualano, B., & Rodrigues Pereira, R. M. (2019). Creatine Supplementation (3 g/d) and Bone Health in Older Women: A 2-Year, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 75(5), 931–938. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glz162

  32. CHILIBECK, P. D., CANDOW, D. G., LANDERYOU, T., KAVIANI, M., & PAUS-JENSSEN, L. (2015). Effects of Creatine and Resistance Training on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 47(8), 1587–1595. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000000571

  33. S. Riehemann, Volz, H.-P., Wenda, B., Hübner, G., G Rössger, R. Rzanny, & Sauer, H. (1999). Frontal lobein vivo31P-MRS reveals gender differences in healthy controls, not in schizophrenics. NMR in Biomedicine, 12(8), 483–489. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-1492(199912)12:8%3C483::aid-nbm589%3E3.0.co;2-d

  34. Hellem, T. L., Sung, Y.-H., Shi, X.-F., Pett, M. A., Latendresse, G., Morgan, J., Huber, R. S., Kuykendall, D., Lundberg, K. J., & Renshaw, P. F. (2015). Creatine as a Novel Treatment for Depression in Females Using Methamphetamine: A Pilot Study. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 11(3-4), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2015.1100471

  35. Lyoo, I. K., Yoon, S., Kim, T.-S., Hwang, J., Kim, J. E., Won, W., Bae, S., & Renshaw, P. F. (2012). A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial of Oral Creatine Monohydrate Augmentation for Enhanced Response to a Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor in Women With Major Depressive Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(9), 937–945. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010009

  36. Kondo, D. G., Sung, Y.-H., Hellem, T. L., Fiedler, K. K., Shi, X., Jeong, E.-K., & Renshaw, P. F. (2011). Open-label adjunctive creatine for female adolescents with SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder: A 31-phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 135(1-3), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.07.010

  37. Lyoo, I. K., Kong, S. W., Sung, S. M., Hirashima, F., Parow, A., Hennen, J., Cohen, B. M., & Renshaw, P. F. (2003). Multinuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of high-energy phosphate metabolites in human brain following oral supplementation of creatine-monohydrate. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 123(2), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0925-4927(03)00046-5

  38. Bakian, A. V., Huber, R. S., Scholl, L., Renshaw, P. F., & Kondo, D. (2020). Dietary creatine intake and depression risk among U.S. adults. Translational Psychiatry, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0741-x

  39. Rawson, E. S., & Venezia, A. C. (2011). Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old. Amino Acids, 40(5), 1349–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-011-0855-9

  40. Allen, P. J. (2012). Creatine metabolism and psychiatric disorders: Does creatine supplementation have therapeutic value? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(5), 1442–1462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.03.005

  41. McMorris, T., Harris, R. C., Howard, A. N., Langridge, G., Hall, B., Corbett, J., Dicks, M., & Hodgson, C. (2007). Creatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behavior. Physiology & Behavior, 90(1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.08.024

  42. Blatter, K., Graw, P., Münch, M., Knoblauch, V., Wirz-Justice, A., & Cajochen, C. (2006). Gender and age differences in psychomotor vigilance performance under differential sleep pressure conditions. Behavioural Brain Research, 168(2), 312–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2005.11.018

  43. Vidafar, P., Gooley, J. J., Burns, A. C., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., Rueger, M., Van Reen, E., Czeisler, C. A., Lockley, S. W., & Cain, S. W. (2018). Increased vulnerability to attentional failure during acute sleep deprivation in women depends on menstrual phase. Sleep, 41(8). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsy098

  44. McMorris, T., Harris, R. C., Swain, J., Corbett, J., Collard, K., Dyson, R. J., Dye, L., Hodgson, C., & Draper, N. (2006). Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Psychopharmacology, 185(1), 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-0269-z

  45. Earnest, C. P., Almada, A. L., & Mitchell, T. L. (1996). High-Performance Capillary Electrophoresis-Pure Creatine Monohydrate Reduces Blood Lipids in Men and Women. Clinical Science, 91(1), 113–118. https://doi.org/10.1042/cs0910113

  46. Deminice, R., de Castro, G. S. F., Francisco, L. V., da Silva, L. E. C. M., Cardoso, J. F. R., Frajacomo, F. T. T., Teodoro, B. G., dos Reis Silveira, L., & Jordao, A. A. (2015). Creatine supplementation prevents fatty liver in rats fed choline-deficient diet: a burden of one-carbon and fatty acid metabolism. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 26(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.11.014

  47. Deminice, R., Cella, P. S., Padilha, C. S., Borges, F. H., da Silva, L. E. C. M., Campos-Ferraz, P. L., Jordao, A. A., Robinson, J. L., Bertolo, R. F., Cecchini, R., & Guarnier, F. A. (2016). Creatine supplementation prevents hyperhomocysteinemia, oxidative stress and cancer-induced cachexia progression in Walker-256 tumor-bearing rats. Amino Acids, 48(8), 2015–2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-016-2172-9

  48. Deminice, R., & Jordao, A. A. (2016). Creatine supplementation decreases plasma lipid peroxidation markers and enhances anaerobic performance in rats. Redox Report, 21(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1179/1351000215y.0000000020

  49. Gualano, B., DE Salles Painneli, V., Roschel, H., Artioli, G. G., Neves, M., Jr, De Sá Pinto, A. L., Da Silva, M. E., Cunha, M. R., Otaduy, M. C., Leite, C.daC., Ferreira, J. C., Pereira, R. M., Brum, P. C., Bonfá, E., & Lancha, A. H., Jr (2011). Creatine in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 43(5), 770–778. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181fcee7d

  50. NEVES, M., GUALANO, B., ROSCHEL, H., FULLER, R., BENATTI, F. B., DE SÁ PINTO, A. L., LIMA, F. R., PEREIRA, R. M., LANCHA, A. H., & BONFÁ, E. (2011). Beneficial Effect of Creatine Supplementation in Knee Osteoarthritis. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(8), 1538–1543. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3182118592

  51. Campos-Ferraz, P. L., Gualano, B., das Neves, W., Andrade, I. T., Hangai, I., Pereira, R. T. S., Bezerra, R. N., Deminice, R., Seelaender, M., & Lancha, A. H. (2016). Exploratory studies of the potential anti-cancer effects of creatine. Amino Acids, 48(8), 1993–2001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-016-2180-9

  52. Smith, R. N., Agharkar, A. S., & Gonzales, E. B. (2014). A review of creatine supplementation in age-related diseases: more than a supplement for athletes. F1000Research, 3, 222. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.5218.1

  53. Patra, S., Ghosh, A., Roy, S. S., Bera, S., Das, M., Talukdar, D., Ray, S., Wallimann, T., & Ray, M. (2011). A short review on creatine–creatine kinase system in relation to cancer and some experimental results on creatine as adjuvant in cancer therapy. Amino Acids, 42(6), 2319–2330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-011-0974-3

  54. Alves, C. R. R., Santiago, B. M., Lima, F. R., Otaduy, M. C. G., Calich, A. L., Tritto, A. C. C., de Sá Pinto, A. L., Roschel, H., Leite, C. C., Benatti, F. B., Bonfá, E., & Gualano, B. (2013). Creatine Supplementation in Fibromyalgia: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Arthritis Care & Research, 65(9), 1449–1459. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.22020

  55. Bender, A., & Klopstock, T. (2016). Creatine for neuroprotection in neurodegenerative disease: end of story? Amino Acids, 48(8), 1929–1940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-015-2165-0

  56. Hultman, E., Soderlund, K., Timmons, J. A., Cederblad, G., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996). Muscle creatine loading in men. Journal of Applied Physiology, 81(1), 232–237. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1996.81.1.232

  57. Jäger, R., Harris, R. C., Purpura, M., & Francaux, M. (2007). Comparison of new forms of creatine in raising plasma creatine levels. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-4-1

  58. Steenge, G. R., Simpson, E. J., & Greenhaff, P. L. (2000). Protein- and carbohydrate-induced augmentation of whole body creatine retention in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(3), 1165–1171. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2000.89.3.1165

  59. Preen, D., Dawson, B., Goodman, C., Beilby, J., & Ching, S. (2003). Creatine Supplementation: A Comparison of Loading and Maintenance Protocols on Creatine Uptake by Human Skeletal Muscle. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13(1), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.13.1.97

  60. Antonio, J., & Ciccone, V. (2013). The effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strength. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-36

  61. Greenhaff, P. L. (1996). Creatine supplementation: recent developments. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 30(4), 276–277. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.30.4.276

  62. Cooper, R., Naclerio, F., Allgrove, J., & Jimenez, A. (2012). Creatine supplementation with specific view to exercise/sports performance: an update. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-9-33

  63. Syrotuik, D. G., & Bell, G. J. (2004). Acute Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation: A Descriptive Physiological Profile of Responders vs. Nonresponders. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(3), 610. https://doi.org/10.1519/12392.1

  64. Kreider, R. B., Melton, C., Rasmussen, C. J., Greenwood, M., Lancaster, S., Cantler, E. C., Milnor, P., & Almada, A. L. (2003). Long-term creatine supplementation does not significantly affect clinical markers of health in athletes. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 244(1-2), 95–104. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12701816/

  65. Dt, T., Ka, E., & Lm, B. (2016, March 1). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and Athletic Performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26920240

  66. Hall, M., & Trojian, T. H. (2013). Creatine Supplementation. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 12(4), 240–244. https://doi.org/10.1249/jsr.0b013e31829cdff2

  67. Andre, T. L. (2016). Effects of five weeks of resistance training and relatively-dosed creatine monohydrate supplementation on body composition and muscle strength, and whole-body creatine metabolism in resistance-trained males. Sponet.fi. https://sponet.fi/Record/4038900

  68. van der Merwe, J., Brooks, N. E., & Myburgh, K. H. (2009). Three Weeks of Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation Affects Dihydrotestosterone to Testosterone Ratio in College-Aged Rugby Players. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 19(5), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1097/jsm.0b013e3181b8b52f




Comments


bottom of page